Trends in the development of nanovaccines against swine diseases.

Swine diseases lead to significant economic losses to the pork industry and pose a risk of zoonotic transmission. To address this issue, nanomaterials are being used as carriers for antigens, including inactivated viruses, chimeric proteins, membrane proteins, and genetic materials such as DNA. Nanovaccines have been administered through intranasal, subcutaneous, and intramuscular routes, with some showing strong immune responses and protective efficacy against pathogenic challenges. This review highlights the current trends in developing nanovaccines for swine diseases, focusing on the employed nanomaterials, their physicochemical properties, delivery strategies, immune responses, and protective outcomes. It also examines the challenges and potential future applications of nanovaccines in the swine industry.